Question 1

Who was Hammurabi and why is his name associated with justice?

Accepted Answer

Hammurabi was the sixth king of Babylon (1792–1750 BCE), transforming a small kingdom into a vast empire in Mesopotamia. What makes him famous is less his conquests than his Law Code, one of the oldest sets of written rules. To understand this, remember that unlike earlier oral traditions, Hammurabi had 282 articles carved on a diorite stele displayed publicly. The key point is that this code established the principle of lex talionis ("an eye for an eye") but also proportional penalties based on social status, a major legal innovation.

Question 2

Why is the Code of Hammurabi considered an essential source for the history of law?

Accepted Answer

The Code of Hammurabi (c. 1750 BCE) is fundamental because it represents one of the earliest attempts to systematize law in writing, covering areas as diverse as theft, wages, divorce, and professional liability. What stands out is that it is not simply a collection of customs: the prologue states that the king acts by order of the gods Shamash and Marduk, giving divine legitimacy to the law. Less a religious text than a tool of governance, it influenced later codes in the ancient Near East and remains a reference for understanding the evolution of justice.

Question 3

How did Hammurabi unify Mesopotamia?

Accepted Answer

Hammurabi succeeded in unifying most of Mesopotamia through a combination of military campaigns and diplomacy between 1764 and 1755 BCE. The key to this episode is that he first played alliances, notably with Mari, before turning against his allies once his position was strengthened. What distinguishes his strategy is that he did not merely conquer: he established a centralized administration, as evidenced by his correspondence with governors, to manage irrigation canals, taxes, and justice. Imagine that every decision, from dredging a canal to resolving a dispute, went through the royal palace.

Question 4

What was a typical day like for King Hammurabi?

Accepted Answer

To understand the daily life of Hammurabi, imagine a king who rises at dawn in his palace of sun-dried brick in Babylon and begins with prayers to Shamash, the god of justice. His morning is devoted to audiences where he dispenses justice in person, applying the principles of his code. In the afternoon, he dictates letters to his scribes on clay tablets, giving precise orders about canals or garrisons. In the evening, there are banquets with barley beer and grilled meat, but also consultations with diviners to interpret omens. What is often forgotten is that this legendary king dealt with very concrete details, like the dredging of a canal or a field dispute.

Question 5

What typical objects from Hammurabi's time can still be seen today?

Accepted Answer

The most iconic object is the diorite stele of the Code of Hammurabi, 2.25 meters high, now in the Louvre Museum. But to understand his era, one must also mention cuneiform clay tablets: hundreds of letters from Hammurabi to his governors have been found, written with a calamus (reed stylus). Cylinder seals made of stone, rolled on clay to authenticate documents, are also characteristic. What strikes us is that these everyday objects—a letter, a seal—tell us how an empire was administered nearly 4000 years ago.

Question 6

What do the words 'cuneiform,' 'talion,' and 'ziggurat' mean in the context of Hammurabi?

Accepted Answer

Cuneiform is the wedge-shaped writing system used to inscribe the Code and royal correspondence. Talion ("an eye for an eye") is the principle of justice appearing in the Code: the punishment must be proportional to the harm, but with nuances according to social status (awilum, free man; mushkenum, intermediate status; wardum, slave). Finally, the ziggurat is the typical stepped temple of Mesopotamia: that of Babylon, the Esagil, dedicated to Marduk, was restored by Hammurabi. The key takeaway is that these words are keys to entering Babylonian civilization.

Question 7

What famous anecdote illustrates how Hammurabi governed his empire?

Accepted Answer

A striking anecdote comes from his correspondence: on clay tablets found at Mari and Larsa, we see Hammurabi giving meticulous orders to his governors. For example, he writes to Sin-Iddinam, governor of Larsa, demanding the dredging of a canal within a month. What is remarkable is that the king of Babylon, hundreds of kilometers away, personally supervises canal maintenance, agricultural disputes, and supplies. Less a distant sovereign than an omnipresent administrator, Hammurabi embodies centralized and pragmatic power.

Question 8

What contemporary events of Hammurabi marked Mesopotamia?

Accepted Answer

To understand the era of Hammurabi (1792–1750 BCE), remember that Mesopotamia was fragmented into rival city-states. Before him, the Code of Ur-Nammu (c. 2100 BCE) had already set laws at Ur. During his reign, he faced coalitions led by Elam (decisive victory around 1764), conquered Larsa (1763), and destroyed Mari (1761). After his death, his son Samsu-iluna succeeded him, but the empire declined, and Babylon fell in 1595 BCE to the Hittites. The key point is that Hammurabi's reign was a golden age between two periods of fragmentation.

Question 9

Where can the stele of the Code of Hammurabi be seen today, and why is it there?

Accepted Answer

The stele of the Code of Hammurabi is displayed at the Louvre Museum in Paris. To understand why it is not in Babylon, imagine that in the 12th century BCE, an Elamite king took it as war booty to Susa (in present-day Iran). There, French archaeologists led by Jacques de Morgan discovered it in 1901–1902. What distinguishes this stele is that it is not only a legal monument but also a witness to wars between Mesopotamian empires. Its presence in the Louvre makes it a symbol of French archaeology in the Near East.

Question 10

What excerpt from the Code of Hammurabi illustrates the principle of talion, and how was it applied?

Accepted Answer

A famous excerpt from the Code states: "If a man has put out the eye of a free man, they shall put out his eye." The key takeaway is that this law, often cited as an example of primitive justice, was actually nuanced: if the victim was a subordinate (mushkenum), the offender paid a fine. To understand this, remember that Babylonian society was hierarchical: the status of the victim (awilum, mushkenum, or wardum) determined the penalty. Less an absolute rule than a proportional system, the Code of Hammurabi shows a desire to codify justice with degrees of responsibility.

Hammurabi(1809 av. J.-C. — 1749 av. J.-C.)

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