Kublai Khan

📷 Wikimedia Commons — domaine public — Araniko — 1294

1215 — 1294

dynastie Yuan en Chine

PoliticsMilitaryEconomicsMiddle Ages13th century — peak of the Mongol Empire and dominion over China

Grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in China and ruled from 1260 to 1294. He expanded the Mongol Empire to its greatest extent and opened China to international trade, most notably welcoming Marco Polo.

Key Facts

1215: Birth of Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan
1260: Becomes Great Khan of the Mongol Empire
1271: Founds the Yuan dynasty and proclaims the Empire of China
1275: Receives Marco Polo at his court in Khanbaliq (Beijing)
1294: Death of Kublai Khan, end of the Mongol Empire's golden age

Works & Achievements

Foundation of the Yuan Dynasty (1271)

By adopting a Chinese reign name and founding the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan established the first foreign conquest dynasty to rule all of China, synthesizing Mongol and Chinese cultures.

Construction of Khanbaliq (new Beijing) (1267-1285)

Kublai Khan had a monumental new capital built north of the former Jin capital, featuring an orthogonal layout, lavish palaces, and a perimeter wall stretching 28 km.

Monetary Reform and the Expansion of Paper Currency (1260-1280)

Kublai Khan unified his empire's monetary system by imposing state-issued paper money, facilitating trade along the Silk Roads and inspiring awestruck admiration from Marco Polo.

Extension of the Grand Canal (1280-1293)

Kublai Khan had the Grand Canal extended and restored over more than 1,700 km to connect Hangzhou to Khanbaliq, ensuring the capital's rice supply and boosting domestic trade.

Creation of the Phags-pa Script (1269)

At Kublai Khan's request, the Tibetan monk Drogön Chögyal Phagpa created a new universal script intended to transcribe all languages of the empire, reflecting the ruler's ambition to unify his vast realm.

Unification of China under the Yuan (1279)

The naval victory at Yamen ended the resistance of the Southern Song and placed the entirety of Chinese territory under Mongol authority for the first time since the era of divided kingdoms.

Anecdotes

Kublai Khan was the first Mongol ruler to settle permanently in China, adopting the customs and rituals of Chinese civilization. His Mongol advisors criticized him for abandoning nomadic traditions, but he understood that governing such a vast empire required adapting to its peoples.

In 1271, Kublai Khan received the Venetian merchant Marco Polo at his court, who remained in his service for nearly seventeen years. Upon returning to Europe, Marco Polo dictated his memoirs from a Genoese prison, giving rise to the famous Book of the Marvels of the World, which opened Asia to European eyes.

Kublai Khan attempted to invade Japan twice, in 1274 and 1281. Both expeditions were devastated by typhoons that the Japanese called kamikaze, meaning 'divine winds.' These failures marked the first major military defeats of the Mongol Empire.

An avid hunting enthusiast, Kublai Khan organized spectacular hunting parties that mobilized thousands of beaters, elephants, and falconers. Marco Polo described with wonder these lavish processions that swept across the plains around Beijing for weeks at a time.

To facilitate trade across his immense empire, Kublai Khan developed and imposed the use of paper money — the 'chao' — a Chinese invention he extended across all his territories. Marco Polo was astonished to find that simple pieces of paper had replaced gold and silver in everyday transactions.

Primary Sources

The Description of the World (Il Milione) — Marco Polo (c. 1298)

The Great Lord is of middle height, neither too tall nor too short; his limbs are well-formed. His complexion is white and ruddy like a rose. His eyes are black and fine, his nose well shaped and prominent.

The Secret History of the Mongols (Mongolyn nuuts tovchoo) (13th century)

Kublai, the fourth son of Tolui, inherited his father's legacy and showed from his youth a superior intelligence to that of his brothers in matters of governance.

Compendium of Chronicles (Jami' al-tawarikh) — Rashid al-Din (c. 1307)

Kublai Khan established his capital at Khanbaliq and built there palaces of unparalleled magnificence, surrounding the city with walls and gardens where animals from every province of the empire roamed freely.

Annals of the Yuan Dynasty (Yuanshi) (1370)

Emperor Shizu [Kublai Khan] instituted civil examinations adapted to Chinese scholars, promulgated laws promoting agriculture, and ordered the construction of public granaries to prevent famines.

Key Places

Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing)

Capital of Kublai Khan's empire, renamed Khanbaliq ('City of the Khan'), it was built on a regular grid plan and housed palaces that Marco Polo described as the most beautiful in the world.

Shangdu (Xanadu)

Kublai Khan's summer capital, Shangdu was a pleasure city surrounded by gardens and game-rich forests. The English poet Coleridge immortalized it under the name Xanadu in his famous Romantic poem.

Hangzhou

Former capital of the Southern Song dynasty, Hangzhou was conquered by Kublai Khan in 1276. Marco Polo, who visited after the conquest, described it as 'the most noble and magnificent city in the world.'

Karakorum

The ancient Mongol capital founded by Genghis Khan on the steppes of Central Asia. Kublai Khan abandoned it in favor of Khanbaliq, symbolizing the shift of the center of power toward China.

Yangzhou

An important commercial city in China where Marco Polo claims to have served as governor for three years in the service of Kublai Khan, illustrating the openness of the Yuan administration to foreigners.

Gallery

Khubilai Khan Huntinglabel QS:Lja,"元世祖出猟図軸"label QS:Lfr,"Peinture sur rouleau des ancêtres de la dynastie Yuan lors d'une campagne de chasse."label QS:Len,"Khubilai Khan Hunting"label QS:Lzh,"元劉貫道畫元世

Wikimedia Commons, Public domain — Liu Guandao