Early Modern

An 18th-century French novelist, historian, and clergyman, Abbé Prévost is best known for his novel "Manon Lescaut" (1731), which is part of the French baccalauréat curriculum. His work embodies the tensions between religious morality and human passion that defined the era.

An 18th-century Scottish philosopher and economist, Adam Smith is considered the father of modern political economy. His landmark work, The Wealth of Nations (1776), laid the foundations of economic liberalism and capitalism.

Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1702 to 1707, then first Queen of Great Britain following the Acts of Union of 1707. Her reign saw the rise of parliamentary government and the War of the Spanish Succession.

A Parisian writer and salon hostess (1647–1733), she presided over one of the most influential literary salons of the Regency period, frequented by Fontenelle, Montesquieu, and Marivaux. A pioneer in thinking about women's education, she championed their access to intellectual life.

Aphra Behn (1640-1689) was the first English woman to earn her living by the pen. A prolific playwright, novelist, and spy in the service of Charles II, she defied the conventions of her time by making her mark in the male-dominated literary world.

A 19th-century German philosopher, Schopenhauer is the great thinker of pessimism and the will. His masterwork, The World as Will and Representation (1818), profoundly influenced Nietzsche, Freud, and Wagner.

French writer, musician, and businessman (1732-1799), Beaumarchais is the author of The Barber of Seville and The Marriage of Figaro, two plays that revolutionized 18th-century comedy through their social criticism and complex plotting.

An 18th-century American statesman, scientist, and writer, Benjamin Franklin is one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. The inventor of the lightning rod, he contributed to drafting the Declaration of Independence and negotiated the Franco-American alliance.

Cardinal and chief minister to Louis XIII, Richelieu strengthened royal authority and centralized power in France. He fought against the rebellious nobility and the Protestants, while drawing France into the Thirty Years' War.

Cardinal and chief minister of state of France, he governed the kingdom during Louis XIV's minority under the regency of Anne of Austria. Richelieu's successor, he signed the Treaties of Westphalia and overcame the Fronde to consolidate the monarchy.

A French writer of the 17th century, Charles Perrault is famous for having collected and transcribed folk tales. He gave literary form to traditional stories such as Little Red Riding Hood and Cinderella, thus laying the foundations of modern children's literature.

King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718, Charles XII was one of the greatest military commanders of his era. He led the Great Northern War against a European coalition, winning the Battle of Narva (1700) before suffering a crushing defeat at Poltava (1709). He died during the siege of Fredriksten, marking the end of Swedish dominance in Europe.

French novelist and salonnière (1682–1749), she hosted one of the most influential literary salons of the eighteenth century in Paris. The mother who abandoned d'Alembert at birth, she is the author of sentimental and historical novels such as the Mémoires du comte de Comminge.

French philosopher, writer, and encyclopedist (1713–1784), a leading figure of the Enlightenment. Co-editor of the Encyclopédie with d'Alembert, he embodies the critical spirit and pursuit of rational knowledge that defined the 18th century. Author of philosophical novels such as Jacques the Fatalist, he helped transform European intellectual thought.

Esther Johnson (1681–1728), known by the nickname "Stella", was the close friend and confidante of the writer Jonathan Swift. Their intellectual and epistolary relationship, chronicled in the Journal to Stella, makes her a notable figure in English literary life of the 18th century.

A French writer and scholar of the 17th–18th century, Fontenelle popularized science for the general public. Known for his Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds and his role as perpetual secretary of the Académie des sciences, he embodies the spirit of the Enlightenment.

French writer (1695-1758), pioneer of the epistolary novel in the 18th century. She is best known for her Letters from a Peruvian Woman, a major work of Enlightenment literature that critiques French society through the discerning gaze of an exotic heroine.

King of Denmark and Norway from 1559 to 1588, Frederick II waged the Northern Seven Years' War against Sweden and was an enlightened patron of the arts, most notably supporting the astronomer Tycho Brahe. He commissioned the construction of Kronborg Castle in Elsinore.

German poet, playwright, and philosopher of the Enlightenment and Sturm und Drang, Schiller is one of the major figures of Weimar Classical literature. A close friend of Goethe, he championed the ideals of freedom, human dignity, and moral elevation through art.

German philosopher (1770–1831), Hegel is one of the most influential thinkers of German Idealism. He developed a philosophy of history based on dialectics and the concept of the Absolute Spirit.

Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American War of Independence, George Washington became the first President of the United States (1789–1797). A Virginia planter and slaveholder, he embodies the contradictions of the young Republic — torn between ideals of liberty and the reality of slavery.

Pope from 1691 to 1700, Innocent XII reformed the Church by combating nepotism through the bull Romanum decet Pontificem (1692). He played a role in the Quietist controversy and contributed to European diplomacy.

Born Belle van Zuylen in the Netherlands in 1740, Isabelle de Charrière settled in Switzerland after her marriage and became one of the most remarkable women writers of the 18th century. A novelist, letter-writer, and composer, she advocated with great clarity for women's freedom and critiqued the social conventions of her time.

American statesman (1751–1836), regarded as the "Father of the Constitution" of the United States. Architect of the Bill of Rights and fourth President of the United States, he was one of the foremost theorists of American republicanism.

Jane Austen (1775-1817) was a major English novelist of the 19th century, author of romantic and social novels that subtly critique the social conventions of her time. Her work, most notably Pride and Prejudice, explores human relationships and the stakes of marriage with irony and psychological insight.

A French writer and moralist of the 17th century (1645–1696), Jean de La Bruyère is the author of The Characters, a major work of classical literature. His collection of satirical portraits and moral reflections offers a sharp critique of the society of his time.

A French poet and fabulist of the 17th century, Jean de La Fontaine is celebrated for his Fables, collections of short verse tales featuring animals to illustrate moral lessons. His works, imbued with humor and wisdom, remain major classics of French literature.

A mathematician and philosopher of the Enlightenment, he co-edited the great Encyclopédie with Diderot and wrote its famous Preliminary Discourse. He formulated the mechanical principle that bears his name and embodied the encyclopédiste ideal of bringing together all human knowledge.

A French playwright of the 17th century, Racine is one of the masters of classical tragedy. Author of masterpieces such as Phaedra and Andromache, he embodies the balance between formal rigour and emotional intensity that defines French classical theatre.

Genevan philosopher, writer, and musician (1712–1778), a central figure of the Enlightenment. Author of The Social Contract and Confessions, he profoundly influenced political and educational thought by championing popular sovereignty and natural education.

John Adams (1735-1826) was an American lawyer, diplomat, and statesman, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Vice President under George Washington, he became the second President of the United States (1797-1801). A key figure of the American Revolution, he contributed to the drafting of the Constitution.

Son of President John Adams, John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States (1825–1829). A seasoned diplomat, he negotiated the Treaty of Ghent (1814) ending the Anglo-American War and helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine. He later championed the rights of enslaved people as a congressman.

Anglo-Irish writer and satirist (1667–1745), Jonathan Swift is the author of Gulliver's Travels. Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin, he used literature as a political and social weapon against the injustices of his time.

An 18th-century French salonnière, Julie de Lespinasse ran one of the most influential salons in Paris, frequented by the Encyclopédistes. A passionate letter-writer, her correspondence offers a vivid window into the intellectual life of the Enlightenment.

An English aristocrat and woman of letters of the 18th century, Mary Wortley Montagu accompanied her husband, an ambassador, to Constantinople. There she discovered variolation and introduced it to Western Europe, saving countless lives before Jenner's development of the vaccine.

Lord Byron (1788-1824) was the most celebrated British poet of the Romantic era. A scandalous and politically engaged figure, he embodied the "Byronic hero": brooding, rebellious, and passionate. He died in Greece while fighting for Greek independence.

Nicknamed “the Great Condé,” this prince of the blood distinguished himself at the Battle of Rocroi (1643) by crushing the Spanish infantry. A key figure in the Fronde, he eventually reconciled with Louis XIV and remained one of the greatest military commanders of the Grand Siècle.

17th-century French writer and pioneer of the psychological novel. Author of The Princess of Clèves, a landmark work exploring the inner feelings and intimate conflicts of its characters. A prominent figure in the literary and cultural life of Louis XIV's court.

French epistolary writer of the 17th century, celebrated for her exceptional literary correspondence, particularly her letters to her daughter. Her work offers an invaluable portrait of court life and French society under Louis XIV.

Germaine de Staël, fille du ministre Necker, fut l'une des grandes voix intellectuelles de son époque. Romancière, essayiste et salonnière, elle tint tête à Napoléon qui l'exila, et contribua à introduire le romantisme allemand en France avec son ouvrage De l'Allemagne.

A Spanish writer of the Golden Age (1590–1661), María de Zayas is one of the few women of letters of her era to have published under her own name. Her story collections, Novelas amorosas y exemplares (1637) and Desengaños amorosos (1647), boldly denounce male domination and champion women's education.

An 18th-century French writer, playwright, and journalist, Marivaux is the author of brilliant comedies that explore the games of love and chance. He is known for his elegant style and psychological subtlety in the portrayal of feelings.

A French aristocrat of the 17th century, notorious for poisoning her father and brothers in order to inherit their fortune. Her trial and execution in 1676 triggered the Affair of the Poisons, exposing the widespread use of poison in high society.

Official favorite of Louis XIV from 1667 to 1681, she reigned over the court of Versailles and had seven legitimized children with the Sun King. Implicated in the Affair of the Poisons, she subsequently fell from grace.

Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) is the greatest master of haiku, the Japanese poetic form composed of three lines. After serving as a samurai, he devoted himself to poetry and travel across Japan. His masterwork, "The Narrow Road to the Deep North," blends prose and poetry.

Molière (1622-1673) is the greatest French playwright of the 17th century. Founder of his own theatrical company, he created works of comic genius that critique the flaws and vices of the society of his time.

An 18th-century French philosopher and writer, Montesquieu is the author of the landmark work 'The Spirit of the Laws' (1748). He theorized the separation of powers, a foundational concept of modern political thought, and contributed to the emergence of Enlightenment philosophy.

French poet and literary critic of the 17th century, nicknamed the “legislator of Parnassus”. His Art poétique (1674) established the rules of French classicism. A friend of Molière, Racine, and La Fontaine, he served as royal historiographer to King Louis XIV.

French author, politician and pamphleteer (1748–1793), Olympe de Gouges campaigned for women's rights and the abolition of slavery during the French Revolution. She wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791, a founding document of feminism.

Regent of France from 1715 to 1723 during the minority of Louis XV, Philippe II d'Orléans governed the kingdom following the death of Louis XIV. A curious and libertine spirit, he was also a musician, painter, and patron of the arts, embodying the transition between the Grand Siècle and the Enlightenment.

French playwright and poet (1606–1684), founder of French classical tragedy. Author of Le Cid, a landmark work of French theater that left a lasting mark on literary history. He dominated the Parisian stage in the 17th century with his tragedies and comedies.

Juana Inés de la Cruz was a Mexican poet and playwright of the 17th century, a towering figure of Hispanic Baroque literature. A self-taught nun in New Spain, she championed women's right to knowledge in a colonial society dominated by men.

A French writer of the 19th century, Stendhal is the author of the psychological novel The Red and the Black (1830). Known for his sharp analysis of human passions and his direct style, he left a lasting mark on French literature by exploring themes of ambition, passion, and social criticism.

An American statesman, Thomas Jefferson was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). A philosopher of the Enlightenment, he also served as the third President of the United States (1801–1809).

An 18th-century French writer and philosopher, Voltaire is a major figure of the Enlightenment. Through his works, most notably Candide, he championed tolerance, freedom of expression, and criticism of religious intolerance.

British poet, painter, and engraver (1757-1827), William Blake is one of the towering figures of English Romanticism. A visionary and mystic, he created a strikingly original body of poetic and artistic work, combining text and image in hand-engraved illuminated books.

Legendary queen of the Baoulé people in the 18th century, she led her people from the Ashanti kingdom to present-day Ivory Coast. Oral tradition holds that she sacrificed her only son to allow her people to cross the Comoé River, a founding act of Baoulé identity.

Queen of the Malwa kingdom (Indore) from 1767 to 1795, she ruled with wisdom and justice. Widowed at 29, she refused sati and took charge of the state, personally leading her armies. She had hundreds of temples, wells, and roads built across India.

An American general and hero of the War of 1812, Andrew Jackson became the 7th President of the United States (1829–1837). A populist figure, he embodied Jacksonian democracy while also being a slaveholder and the architect of the policy to forcibly remove Native Americans from their lands.

A Parisian writer and salon hostess (1647–1733), she presided over one of the most influential literary salons of the Regency period, frequented by Fontenelle, Montesquieu, and Marivaux. A pioneer in thinking about women's education, she championed their access to intellectual life.

Founding queen of the Baoulé people (Côte d'Ivoire) in the 18th century, according to Akan oral tradition. To allow her people to cross the Comoé River during a forced exile, she is said to have sacrificed her only son. Her name means "the child who does not return."

Queen of the kingdom of Zazzau (present-day Zaria, Nigeria) in the 16th century, Bakwa Turunku founded the city of Zaria around 1536. She is the mother of the famous warrior queen Amina of Zaria, a symbol of female power in West Africa.

Bartolina Sisa is a heroic figure of the Aymara people and wife of Túpac Katari. Around 1781–1782, she co-led the siege of La Paz against Spanish colonial forces. Captured, she was executed by the Spanish in 1782 and is today revered as a symbol of indigenous resistance in Bolivia.

An 18th-century American statesman, scientist, and writer, Benjamin Franklin is one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. The inventor of the lightning rod, he contributed to drafting the Declaration of Independence and negotiated the Franco-American alliance.

Cardinal and chief minister of state of France, he governed the kingdom during Louis XIV's minority under the regency of Anne of Austria. Richelieu's successor, he signed the Treaties of Westphalia and overcame the Fronde to consolidate the monarchy.

Catherine II, dite Catherine la Grande, est impératrice de Russie de 1762 à 1796. D'origine allemande, elle renverse son époux Pierre III et modernise l'Empire russe en s'inspirant des philosophes des Lumières, tout en renforçant le pouvoir autocratique.

King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718, Charles XII was one of the greatest military commanders of his era. He led the Great Northern War against a European coalition, winning the Battle of Narva (1700) before suffering a crushing defeat at Poltava (1709). He died during the siege of Fredriksten, marking the end of Swedish dominance in Europe.

Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt and member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is best known as the dedicatee of Johann Sebastian Bach's six Brandenburg Concertos (1721). A music lover and patron of the arts, he embodies the aristocratic German culture of the early 18th century.

Reine de Suède de 1632 à 1654, Christine abdique volontairement son trône pour se convertir au catholicisme et s'installer à Rome. Femme d'exception, elle invite Descartes à sa cour et règne avec autorité dans l'Europe de la guerre de Trente Ans.

French lawyer and politician (1759–1794), Danton is a major figure of the French Revolution. Known for his eloquence and charisma, he played a key role in revolutionary events before being executed during the Terror.

Daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth I ruled Russia from 1741 to 1762. Her reign was marked by a flourishing of culture, the founding of Moscow University, and Russia's victorious participation in the Seven Years' War.

Spanish conquistador (c. 1478–1541), he led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru between 1532 and 1533, captured the emperor Atahualpa, and founded Lima in 1535. His expedition transformed the New World and opened South America to Spanish colonization.

King of Denmark and Norway from 1559 to 1588, Frederick II waged the Northern Seven Years' War against Sweden and was an enlightened patron of the arts, most notably supporting the astronomer Tycho Brahe. He commissioned the construction of Kronborg Castle in Elsinore.

Gabrielle Charpentier (c. 1764–1793) was the wife of Georges-Jacques Danton, a leading orator of the French Revolution. The daughter of a Parisian café owner, she died at 28 in February 1793 while her husband was on a mission in Belgium, just months before the Reign of Terror.

Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American War of Independence, George Washington became the first President of the United States (1789–1797). A Virginia planter and slaveholder, he embodies the contradictions of the young Republic — torn between ideals of liberty and the reality of slavery.

American statesman (1751–1836), regarded as the "Father of the Constitution" of the United States. Architect of the Bill of Rights and fourth President of the United States, he was one of the foremost theorists of American republicanism.

A mathematician and philosopher of the Enlightenment, he co-edited the great Encyclopédie with Diderot and wrote its famous Preliminary Discourse. He formulated the mechanical principle that bears his name and embodied the encyclopédiste ideal of bringing together all human knowledge.

John Adams (1735-1826) was an American lawyer, diplomat, and statesman, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Vice President under George Washington, he became the second President of the United States (1797-1801). A key figure of the American Revolution, he contributed to the drafting of the Constitution.

A 17th-century English philosopher, John Locke is the founder of modern empiricism and a major thinker of political liberalism. He developed the theory of natural rights (life, liberty, property) and justified the right to revolt against tyrannical power, profoundly influencing democratic revolutions.

Son of President John Adams, John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States (1825–1829). A seasoned diplomat, he negotiated the Treaty of Ghent (1814) ending the Anglo-American War and helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine. He later championed the rights of enslaved people as a congressman.

A mestiza guerrilla fighter born in 1780 in Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia), she commanded indigenous troops against the Spanish during the independence wars. Known as "the Pachamama of freedom," she was appointed lieutenant colonel by Simón Bolívar.

Queen consort and later regent of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Kaʻahumanu was the favorite wife of King Kamehameha I. In 1819, she abolished the system of religious taboos (kapu) and played a key role in introducing Christianity to Hawaii.

A Kongolese prophetess of the Bakongo people, Kimpa Vita founded around 1704 the Antonian movement, preaching an African interpretation of Christianity. Arrested by Capuchin missionaries, she was burned at the stake in 1706 for heresy and witchcraft.

Poisoner, fortune-teller, and abortionist in 17th-century Paris, Catherine Deshayes was the central figure of the Affair of the Poisons (1679–1682). Supplying poisons, love potions, and black masses to an aristocratic clientele, she was burned alive at the Place de Grève in 1680.

Lord Byron (1788-1824) was the most celebrated British poet of the Romantic era. A scandalous and politically engaged figure, he embodied the "Byronic hero": brooding, rebellious, and passionate. He died in Greece while fighting for Greek independence.

Nicknamed “the Great Condé,” this prince of the blood distinguished himself at the Battle of Rocroi (1643) by crushing the Spanish infantry. A key figure in the Fronde, he eventually reconciled with Louis XIV and remained one of the greatest military commanders of the Grand Siècle.

King of France and Navarre from 1643 to 1715, Louis XIV is the symbol of French royal absolutism. He concentrated power in his own hands and transformed the monarchy into a centralized political system, embodied by the Palace of Versailles, which he had built.

King of France and Navarre from 1774 to 1791, then King of the French from 1791 to 1792. His reign was marked by the French Revolution, attempted reforms, and the abolition of the Ancien Régime. Arrested during the Flight to Varennes in 1791, he was tried and executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793.

Ecuadorian revolutionary born in Quito around 1797, of mixed heritage (Creole mother, Spanish father), Manuela Sáenz was a central figure in the Spanish American wars of independence and the companion of Simón Bolívar. She saved the Liberator's life in 1828 and was nicknamed the "Libertadora del Libertador."

Queen consort of France from 1774 to 1792, wife of Louis XVI. A symbol of the Ancien Régime and its excesses, she became deeply unpopular with the French people and came to embody the frivolity of the Versailles court. Accused of treason during the French Revolution, she was executed by guillotine in 1793.

French noblewoman from the House of Dreux, a family of high Capetian lineage. A figure of the French aristocracy in the early modern period, her name combines Catholic devotion with membership in one of France's great seigneurial dynasties.

A French aristocrat of the 17th century, notorious for poisoning her father and brothers in order to inherit their fortune. Her trial and execution in 1676 triggered the Affair of the Poisons, exposing the widespread use of poison in high society.

Official favorite of Louis XIV from 1667 to 1681, she reigned over the court of Versailles and had seven legitimized children with the Sun King. Implicated in the Affair of the Poisons, she subsequently fell from grace.

Zulu princess (c. 1750–1843), influential aunt and advisor to King Shaka, and a major figure in Zulu oral tradition. Born among the Zulu people of southern Africa, she wielded considerable political power within the royal household, particularly during royal successions.

An 18th-century French philosopher and writer, Montesquieu is the author of the landmark work 'The Spirit of the Laws' (1748). He theorized the separation of powers, a foundational concept of modern political thought, and contributed to the emergence of Enlightenment philosophy.

A central figure of Maroon resistance in Jamaica during the 18th century, Nanny led the Windward Maroons from their stronghold in the Blue Mountains. A warrior and spiritual leader of Akan origin (present-day Ghana), she led the struggle against British colonial slavery for decades. A Jamaican national heroine, her life is transmitted primarily through Maroon oral tradition.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a French military leader and statesman who seized power in 1799 and proclaimed himself Emperor in 1804. He transformed France and Europe through his reforms and military campaigns, most notably by establishing the Civil Code, which modernized the French legal system.

Warrior queen of Angola (c. 1583–1663), Njinga of Matamba fiercely resisted Portuguese colonization in Central Africa. A skilled diplomat, she negotiated directly with the Portuguese while forging alliances with the Dutch. She ruled the kingdom of Matamba for more than thirty years.

Mughal empress (1577–1645), wife of Emperor Jahangir, she was the only woman to wield real political power under the Mughal dynasty. An administrator, poet, and patron of the arts, she had coins struck in her own name and effectively governed the empire for several years.

Queen of Ndongo and later Matamba (Mbundu people, present-day Angola), Nzinga Mbandi was a formidable political and military strategist who resisted Portuguese expansionism and the Atlantic slave trade throughout the 17th century. An iconic figure of pre-colonial African resistance, she negotiated, waged war, and allied with the Dutch to defend her people's sovereignty.

French author, politician and pamphleteer (1748–1793), Olympe de Gouges campaigned for women's rights and the abolition of slavery during the French Revolution. She wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791, a founding document of feminism.

Tsar and first Emperor of Russia (1682–1725), Peter I undertook a radical modernization of his empire inspired by Western European models. He founded Saint Petersburg, reformed the army and administration, and transformed Russia into a major European power.

Regent of France from 1715 to 1723 during the minority of Louis XV, Philippe II d'Orléans governed the kingdom following the death of Louis XIV. A curious and libertine spirit, he was also a musician, painter, and patron of the arts, embodying the transition between the Grand Siècle and the Enlightenment.

Heroine of Colombian independence (c. 1795–1817), nicknamed "La Pola". A seamstress and patriot spy, she recruited soldiers for the independence cause. Captured by the Spanish, she was executed by firing squad in Bogotá on November 14, 1817.

French lawyer and politician (1758–1794), Robespierre was a central figure of the French Revolution. Leader of the Montagnards, he dominated the Committee of Public Safety and became the embodiment of the Reign of Terror before being executed in 1794.

Born in Caracas in 1783, Simón Bolívar was the leading architect of South American independence from the Spanish Empire. Known as 'El Libertador,' he liberated several nations and dreamed of a great Latin American federation.

Born around 1772 in Guadeloupe to an enslaved African mother, Solitude joined the mixed-race insurgents during the armed resistance against the restoration of slavery decreed by Bonaparte in 1802. Pregnant, she fought until her capture and was hanged the day after giving birth, on November 29, 1802. Her story, passed down through Creole and Caribbean oral tradition, has made her an emblematic figure of resistance against colonial oppression.

A 17th-century English philosopher, Thomas Hobbes is the author of Leviathan (1651), a founding work of modern political philosophy. He develops a social contract theory justifying the absolute authority of the state to guarantee peace and security.

An American statesman, Thomas Jefferson was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). A philosopher of the Enlightenment, he also served as the third President of the United States (1801–1809).

A freed slave and Haitian military leader (1743–1803), Toussaint Louverture led the Haitian Revolution and abolished slavery in Saint-Domingue. An iconic figure in the fight for freedom, he transformed a slave colony into the first independent Black republic.

Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1702 to 1707, then first Queen of Great Britain following the Acts of Union of 1707. Her reign saw the rise of parliamentary government and the War of the Spanish Succession.

Anne Ponsarde is a female figure of the early modern period, associated with the world of natural sciences and practical knowledge in France. Her story reflects the role of women in the transmission of knowledge during the early modern era.

A Parisian writer and salon hostess (1647–1733), she presided over one of the most influential literary salons of the Regency period, frequented by Fontenelle, Montesquieu, and Marivaux. A pioneer in thinking about women's education, she championed their access to intellectual life.

An 18th-century French chemist, Lavoisier is the founder of modern chemistry. He established the law of conservation of mass and identified oxygen, revolutionizing the understanding of chemical phenomena.

French mathematician, physicist, philosopher and writer (1623–1662), Blaise Pascal revolutionized mathematics by founding probability theory and left a lasting mark on Christian philosophy through his exploration of doubt and faith. A major figure of the 17th century, he combined scientific rigor with metaphysical inquiry.

French naturalist and mathematician of the 18th century, Buffon is one of the founders of modern natural history. As director of the Jardin du Roi in Paris, he proposed a groundbreaking theory on the age of the Earth and the evolution of species.

Cardinal and chief minister to Louis XIII, Richelieu strengthened royal authority and centralized power in France. He fought against the rebellious nobility and the Protestants, while drawing France into the Thirty Years' War.

Cardinal and chief minister of state of France, he governed the kingdom during Louis XIV's minority under the regency of Anne of Austria. Richelieu's successor, he signed the Treaties of Westphalia and overcame the Fronde to consolidate the monarchy.

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians in history. He made groundbreaking contributions to algebra, geometry, number theory, and physics.

An 18th-century Swedish naturalist, Carl von Linnaeus revolutionized the classification of living organisms. He created a binomial nomenclature system that made it possible to name and organize all known species in a rational and universal way.

Astronome pionnière originaire de Hanovre, Caroline Herschel découvrit huit comètes et contribua à cartographier le ciel aux côtés de son frère William. Elle fut la première femme à recevoir la médaille d'or de la Royal Astronomical Society, en 1828.

King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718, Charles XII was one of the greatest military commanders of his era. He led the Great Northern War against a European coalition, winning the Battle of Narva (1700) before suffering a crushing defeat at Poltava (1709). He died during the siege of Fredriksten, marking the end of Swedish dominance in Europe.

French novelist and salonnière (1682–1749), she hosted one of the most influential literary salons of the eighteenth century in Paris. The mother who abandoned d'Alembert at birth, she is the author of sentimental and historical novels such as the Mémoires du comte de Comminge.

Princess Palatine (1618–1680), daughter of King Frederick V of Bohemia. A self-taught philosopher, she engaged in a celebrated correspondence with Descartes, challenging his mind-body dualism. She ended her life as abbess of the Lutheran convent of Herford.

Émilie du Châtelet (1706-1749) est une physicienne et mathématicienne française des Lumières. Elle traduit et commente les Principia Mathematica de Newton, œuvre qui reste la référence française jusqu'au XIXe siècle. Compagne de Voltaire, elle démontre que l'énergie cinétique est proportionnelle au carré de la vitesse.

A French writer and scholar of the 17th–18th century, Fontenelle popularized science for the general public. Known for his Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds and his role as perpetual secretary of the Académie des sciences, he embodies the spirit of the Enlightenment.

King of Denmark and Norway from 1559 to 1588, Frederick II waged the Northern Seven Years' War against Sweden and was an enlightened patron of the arts, most notably supporting the astronomer Tycho Brahe. He commissioned the construction of Kronborg Castle in Elsinore.

German poet, playwright, and philosopher of the Enlightenment and Sturm und Drang, Schiller is one of the major figures of Weimar Classical literature. A close friend of Goethe, he championed the ideals of freedom, human dignity, and moral elevation through art.

German philosopher and mathematician of the 17th century, Leibniz invented calculus independently of Newton and developed binary logic. A universal thinker, he built an original metaphysics grounded in the theory of monads.

English mathematician, physicist and astronomer (1643–1727), Isaac Newton is one of the greatest scientists in history. He revolutionized science by formulating the laws of motion and universal gravitation, and by developing calculus.

Scottish engineer and inventor (1736–1819), James Watt greatly improved Newcomen's steam engine in 1769, making it efficient and economical. His invention revolutionized industry and transportation, earning him a place as one of the fathers of the Industrial Revolution.

A mathematician and philosopher of the Enlightenment, he co-edited the great Encyclopédie with Diderot and wrote its famous Preliminary Discourse. He formulated the mechanical principle that bears his name and embodied the encyclopédiste ideal of bringing together all human knowledge.

French naturalist and zoologist (1744–1829), Lamarck developed a theory of evolution based on the adaptation of organisms to their environment and the inheritance of acquired characteristics. A professor at the Paris Museum of Natural History, he laid the foundations of transformism, a precursory vision of evolution predating Darwin.

explorer and botanist (1740-1807)

Katharina Gsell (c. 1707–1773) was the daughter of Swiss painter Georg Gsell, who was employed at the imperial court of Saint Petersburg. In 1734 she married the mathematician Leonhard Euler, one of the greatest scholars of the 18th century, and was the companion of his entire scientific life.

An English aristocrat and woman of letters of the 18th century, Mary Wortley Montagu accompanied her husband, an ambassador, to Constantinople. There she discovered variolation and introduced it to Western Europe, saving countless lives before Jenner's development of the vaccine.

A German philosopher and mathematician of the 17th century, Leibniz contributed to the scientific revolution by developing infinitesimal calculus and proposing an original philosophy grounded in monadology. He shaped modern thought through his theory of pre-established harmony and his metaphysical optimism.

Swiss mathematician, physicist, and engineer (1707–1783), Euler is one of the greatest scientists of the 18th century. Prolific and innovative, he contributed to nearly every field of mathematics and physics, despite the blindness that affected him from 1738 onward.

Seventeenth-century English natural philosopher and woman of letters (1623–1673), she developed her own theories on the nature of matter, drawing on atomism while proposing an original vitalist materialism. The first woman to attend a meeting of the Royal Society, in 1667.

A Silesian astronomer of the 17th century, Maria Cunitz published Urania Propitia in 1650, a simplification of Kepler's tables written in both Latin and German. Considered the most remarkable female scholar of her time, she made Keplerian astronomy accessible to a wider audience.

An Italian mathematician and philosopher of the 18th century, Maria Gaetana Agnesi is celebrated for her treatise Instituzioni analitiche (1748), a pioneering pedagogical synthesis of differential and integral calculus. The first woman appointed as a professor of mathematics at the University of Bologna, she later devoted her life to charity and spirituality.

A German naturalist and artist of the 17th century, Maria Sibylla Merian was a pioneer in the study of insects and their metamorphosis. She led an expedition to Suriname (1699–1701) to observe and illustrate tropical flora and fauna, at a time when women rarely had access to the sciences.

French chemist and illustrator (1758–1836), essential collaborator of Antoine Lavoisier. She translated English scientific treatises and created the engravings for the landmark "Elementary Treatise on Chemistry" (1789), contributing to the chemical revolution.

Mary Pitt (1676-) was an English courtesan moving in circles close to British royal power at the end of the 17th century. Her role at court places her within a context of spreading scientific and cultural ideas characteristic of the era.

Regent of France from 1715 to 1723 during the minority of Louis XV, Philippe II d'Orléans governed the kingdom following the death of Louis XIV. A curious and libertine spirit, he was also a musician, painter, and patron of the arts, embodying the transition between the Grand Siècle and the Enlightenment.

A French mathematician and magistrate of the 17th century, Pierre de Fermat left a lasting mark on the history of mathematics through his fundamental contributions to number theory, analytic geometry, and probability theory. Although he worked primarily as a counselor in the Parliament of Toulouse, his mathematical work inspired generations of mathematicians to come.

French philosopher and mathematician of the 17th century, founder of modern philosophy and rationalism. Known for his method of systematic doubt and his famous principle "I think, therefore I am." He revolutionized mathematics by creating analytic geometry.

French mathematician and philosopher (1776–1831), a pioneer in science at a time when women were excluded from it. She made contributions to number theory and elasticity, and corresponded with Gauss under a male pseudonym.

An 18th-century Scottish philosopher and economist, Adam Smith is considered the father of modern political economy. His landmark work, The Wealth of Nations (1776), laid the foundations of economic liberalism and capitalism.

A Parisian writer and salon hostess (1647–1733), she presided over one of the most influential literary salons of the Regency period, frequented by Fontenelle, Montesquieu, and Marivaux. A pioneer in thinking about women's education, she championed their access to intellectual life.

A 19th-century German philosopher, Schopenhauer is the great thinker of pessimism and the will. His masterwork, The World as Will and Representation (1818), profoundly influenced Nietzsche, Freud, and Wagner.

A 17th-century Dutch philosopher, Spinoza developed an original metaphysical system built on the concept of a single substance (God or Nature). His major work, the Ethics, offers a new conception of freedom and the relationship between mind and body.

French mathematician, physicist, philosopher and writer (1623–1662), Blaise Pascal revolutionized mathematics by founding probability theory and left a lasting mark on Christian philosophy through his exploration of doubt and faith. A major figure of the 17th century, he combined scientific rigor with metaphysical inquiry.

Cardinal and chief minister to Louis XIII, Richelieu strengthened royal authority and centralized power in France. He fought against the rebellious nobility and the Protestants, while drawing France into the Thirty Years' War.

Cardinal and chief minister of state of France, he governed the kingdom during Louis XIV's minority under the regency of Anne of Austria. Richelieu's successor, he signed the Treaties of Westphalia and overcame the Fronde to consolidate the monarchy.

King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718, Charles XII was one of the greatest military commanders of his era. He led the Great Northern War against a European coalition, winning the Battle of Narva (1700) before suffering a crushing defeat at Poltava (1709). He died during the siege of Fredriksten, marking the end of Swedish dominance in Europe.

Scottish Enlightenment philosopher (1711-1776), David Hume is one of the foremost thinkers of modern empiricism. He grounded his philosophy in observation and sensory experience, challenging rational certainties and developing a sceptical approach to knowledge.

French philosopher, writer, and encyclopedist (1713–1784), a leading figure of the Enlightenment. Co-editor of the Encyclopédie with d'Alembert, he embodies the critical spirit and pursuit of rational knowledge that defined the 18th century. Author of philosophical novels such as Jacques the Fatalist, he helped transform European intellectual thought.

Princess Palatine (1618–1680), daughter of King Frederick V of Bohemia. A self-taught philosopher, she engaged in a celebrated correspondence with Descartes, challenging his mind-body dualism. She ended her life as abbess of the Lutheran convent of Herford.

Émilie du Châtelet (1706-1749) est une physicienne et mathématicienne française des Lumières. Elle traduit et commente les Principia Mathematica de Newton, œuvre qui reste la référence française jusqu'au XIXe siècle. Compagne de Voltaire, elle démontre que l'énergie cinétique est proportionnelle au carré de la vitesse.

King of Denmark and Norway from 1559 to 1588, Frederick II waged the Northern Seven Years' War against Sweden and was an enlightened patron of the arts, most notably supporting the astronomer Tycho Brahe. He commissioned the construction of Kronborg Castle in Elsinore.

German poet, playwright, and philosopher of the Enlightenment and Sturm und Drang, Schiller is one of the major figures of Weimar Classical literature. A close friend of Goethe, he championed the ideals of freedom, human dignity, and moral elevation through art.

German philosopher (1770–1831), Hegel is one of the most influential thinkers of German Idealism. He developed a philosophy of history based on dialectics and the concept of the Absolute Spirit.

German philosopher and mathematician of the 17th century, Leibniz invented calculus independently of Newton and developed binary logic. A universal thinker, he built an original metaphysics grounded in the theory of monads.

German philosopher (1770–1831), Hegel is one of the greatest thinkers of German Idealism. He developed a dialectical method and an influential philosophy of history, most notably set out in the Phenomenology of Spirit.

German Enlightenment philosopher (1724–1804), Kant revolutionized metaphysics by proposing a radical critique of human reason. Author of the Critique of Pure Reason, he founded transcendental idealism and developed a universal moral theory based on the categorical imperative.

Pope from 1691 to 1700, Innocent XII reformed the Church by combating nepotism through the bull Romanum decet Pontificem (1692). He played a role in the Quietist controversy and contributed to European diplomacy.

Born Belle van Zuylen in the Netherlands in 1740, Isabelle de Charrière settled in Switzerland after her marriage and became one of the most remarkable women writers of the 18th century. A novelist, letter-writer, and composer, she advocated with great clarity for women's freedom and critiqued the social conventions of her time.

American statesman (1751–1836), regarded as the "Father of the Constitution" of the United States. Architect of the Bill of Rights and fourth President of the United States, he was one of the foremost theorists of American republicanism.

A mathematician and philosopher of the Enlightenment, he co-edited the great Encyclopédie with Diderot and wrote its famous Preliminary Discourse. He formulated the mechanical principle that bears his name and embodied the encyclopédiste ideal of bringing together all human knowledge.

Genevan philosopher, writer, and musician (1712–1778), a central figure of the Enlightenment. Author of The Social Contract and Confessions, he profoundly influenced political and educational thought by championing popular sovereignty and natural education.

A 17th-century English philosopher, John Locke is the founder of modern empiricism and a major thinker of political liberalism. He developed the theory of natural rights (life, liberty, property) and justified the right to revolt against tyrannical power, profoundly influencing democratic revolutions.

A German philosopher and mathematician of the 17th century, Leibniz contributed to the scientific revolution by developing infinitesimal calculus and proposing an original philosophy grounded in monadology. He shaped modern thought through his theory of pre-established harmony and his metaphysical optimism.

Germaine de Staël, fille du ministre Necker, fut l'une des grandes voix intellectuelles de son époque. Romancière, essayiste et salonnière, elle tint tête à Napoléon qui l'exila, et contribua à introduire le romantisme allemand en France avec son ouvrage De l'Allemagne.

An Italian mathematician and philosopher of the 18th century, Maria Gaetana Agnesi is celebrated for her treatise Instituzioni analitiche (1748), a pioneering pedagogical synthesis of differential and integral calculus. The first woman appointed as a professor of mathematics at the University of Bologna, she later devoted her life to charity and spirituality.

Mary Wollstonecraft est une philosophe et écrivaine britannique du XVIIIe siècle, pionnière du féminisme. Son œuvre majeure, Défense des droits de la femme (1792), réclame l'égalité d'éducation et de droits civiques pour les femmes. Elle incarne la pensée des Lumières appliquée à la condition féminine.

An 18th-century French philosopher and writer, Montesquieu is the author of the landmark work 'The Spirit of the Laws' (1748). He theorized the separation of powers, a foundational concept of modern political thought, and contributed to the emergence of Enlightenment philosophy.

Regent of France from 1715 to 1723 during the minority of Louis XV, Philippe II d'Orléans governed the kingdom following the death of Louis XIV. A curious and libertine spirit, he was also a musician, painter, and patron of the arts, embodying the transition between the Grand Siècle and the Enlightenment.

French philosopher and mathematician of the 17th century, founder of modern philosophy and rationalism. Known for his method of systematic doubt and his famous principle "I think, therefore I am." He revolutionized mathematics by creating analytic geometry.

French mathematician and philosopher (1776–1831), a pioneer in science at a time when women were excluded from it. She made contributions to number theory and elasticity, and corresponded with Gauss under a male pseudonym.

A 17th-century English philosopher, Thomas Hobbes is the author of Leviathan (1651), a founding work of modern political philosophy. He develops a social contract theory justifying the absolute authority of the state to guarantee peace and security.

An 18th-century French writer and philosopher, Voltaire is a major figure of the Enlightenment. Through his works, most notably Candide, he championed tolerance, freedom of expression, and criticism of religious intolerance.

Queen of the Malwa kingdom (Indore) from 1767 to 1795, she ruled with wisdom and justice. Widowed at 29, she refused sati and took charge of the state, personally leading her armies. She had hundreds of temples, wells, and roads built across India.

Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1702 to 1707, then first Queen of Great Britain following the Acts of Union of 1707. Her reign saw the rise of parliamentary government and the War of the Spanish Succession.

Baron Samedi is the loa of death in Haitian Vodou. Depicted in undertaker's attire — top hat and dark glasses — he is the guardian of the passage between the living and the dead. An ambivalent figure, at once protector and obscene trickster, he embodies the boundary between life and death.

Princess Palatine (1618–1680), daughter of King Frederick V of Bohemia. A self-taught philosopher, she engaged in a celebrated correspondence with Descartes, challenging his mind-body dualism. She ended her life as abbess of the Lutheran convent of Herford.

Spanish conquistador (c. 1478–1541), he led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru between 1532 and 1533, captured the emperor Atahualpa, and founded Lima in 1535. His expedition transformed the New World and opened South America to Spanish colonization.

King of Denmark and Norway from 1559 to 1588, Frederick II waged the Northern Seven Years' War against Sweden and was an enlightened patron of the arts, most notably supporting the astronomer Tycho Brahe. He commissioned the construction of Kronborg Castle in Elsinore.

Gabrielle Charpentier (c. 1764–1793) was the wife of Georges-Jacques Danton, a leading orator of the French Revolution. The daughter of a Parisian café owner, she died at 28 in February 1793 while her husband was on a mission in Belgium, just months before the Reign of Terror.

Pope from 1691 to 1700, Innocent XII reformed the Church by combating nepotism through the bull Romanum decet Pontificem (1692). He played a role in the Quietist controversy and contributed to European diplomacy.

Anglo-Irish writer and satirist (1667–1745), Jonathan Swift is the author of Gulliver's Travels. Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin, he used literature as a political and social weapon against the injustices of his time.

A Kongolese prophetess of the Bakongo people, Kimpa Vita founded around 1704 the Antonian movement, preaching an African interpretation of Christianity. Arrested by Capuchin missionaries, she was burned at the stake in 1706 for heresy and witchcraft.

Nicknamed “the Great Condé,” this prince of the blood distinguished himself at the Battle of Rocroi (1643) by crushing the Spanish infantry. A key figure in the Fronde, he eventually reconciled with Louis XIV and remained one of the greatest military commanders of the Grand Siècle.

A Carmelite nun at the convent of Louviers, Madeleine Bavent was at the center of a demonic possession affair and witchcraft accusations in 1647. Her trial, emblematic of the excesses of the witch hunts, led to the execution of Father Thomas Boulle and the condemnation of several members of the religious community.

An Italian mathematician and philosopher of the 18th century, Maria Gaetana Agnesi is celebrated for her treatise Instituzioni analitiche (1748), a pioneering pedagogical synthesis of differential and integral calculus. The first woman appointed as a professor of mathematics at the University of Bologna, she later devoted her life to charity and spirituality.

French noblewoman from the House of Dreux, a family of high Capetian lineage. A figure of the French aristocracy in the early modern period, her name combines Catholic devotion with membership in one of France's great seigneurial dynasties.

Papa Legba is the loa guardian of crossroads in Haitian Vodou religion. Depicted as an old man with a cane, he is the essential intermediary between humans and the other spirits. No ceremony can begin without first invoking his permission.

An enslaved woman of Native American or Caribbean origin (probably Arawak), owned by Reverend Samuel Parris in Salem. In 1692, she was the first accused to confess to witchcraft, triggering the spiral of the Salem witch trials.

British poet, painter, and engraver (1757-1827), William Blake is one of the towering figures of English Romanticism. A visionary and mystic, he created a strikingly original body of poetic and artistic work, combining text and image in hand-engraved illuminated books.

Queen of the kingdom of Zazzau (present-day Zaria, Nigeria) in the 16th century, Bakwa Turunku founded the city of Zaria around 1536. She is the mother of the famous warrior queen Amina of Zaria, a symbol of female power in West Africa.

Bartolina Sisa is a heroic figure of the Aymara people and wife of Túpac Katari. Around 1781–1782, she co-led the siege of La Paz against Spanish colonial forces. Captured, she was executed by the Spanish in 1782 and is today revered as a symbol of indigenous resistance in Bolivia.

Ching Shih (c. 1775–1844) was a Chinese pirate who became one of the most formidable military commanders in history. She led the Red Flag Fleet, a confederation of over 1,800 ships and 80,000 men, imposing her rule across the South China Sea.

Daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth I ruled Russia from 1741 to 1762. Her reign was marked by a flourishing of culture, the founding of Moscow University, and Russia's victorious participation in the Seven Years' War.

King of Denmark and Norway from 1559 to 1588, Frederick II waged the Northern Seven Years' War against Sweden and was an enlightened patron of the arts, most notably supporting the astronomer Tycho Brahe. He commissioned the construction of Kronborg Castle in Elsinore.

Gabrielle Charpentier (c. 1764–1793) was the wife of Georges-Jacques Danton, a leading orator of the French Revolution. The daughter of a Parisian café owner, she died at 28 in February 1793 while her husband was on a mission in Belgium, just months before the Reign of Terror.

A mestiza guerrilla fighter born in 1780 in Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia), she commanded indigenous troops against the Spanish during the independence wars. Known as "the Pachamama of freedom," she was appointed lieutenant colonel by Simón Bolívar.

Laskarína Bouboulína est une héroïne grecque de la guerre d'indépendance contre l'Empire ottoman. Armant et finançant sa propre flotte de guerre, elle participa activement aux combats navals dès 1821, notamment au blocus de Nauplie. Elle est la seule femme à avoir reçu le titre d'amiral de la marine russe à titre honorifique.

Lord Byron (1788-1824) was the most celebrated British poet of the Romantic era. A scandalous and politically engaged figure, he embodied the "Byronic hero": brooding, rebellious, and passionate. He died in Greece while fighting for Greek independence.

Ecuadorian revolutionary born in Quito around 1797, of mixed heritage (Creole mother, Spanish father), Manuela Sáenz was a central figure in the Spanish American wars of independence and the companion of Simón Bolívar. She saved the Liberator's life in 1828 and was nicknamed the "Libertadora del Libertador."

A central figure of Maroon resistance in Jamaica during the 18th century, Nanny led the Windward Maroons from their stronghold in the Blue Mountains. A warrior and spiritual leader of Akan origin (present-day Ghana), she led the struggle against British colonial slavery for decades. A Jamaican national heroine, her life is transmitted primarily through Maroon oral tradition.

Queen of Ndongo and later Matamba (Mbundu people, present-day Angola), Nzinga Mbandi was a formidable political and military strategist who resisted Portuguese expansionism and the Atlantic slave trade throughout the 17th century. An iconic figure of pre-colonial African resistance, she negotiated, waged war, and allied with the Dutch to defend her people's sovereignty.

Regent of France from 1715 to 1723 during the minority of Louis XV, Philippe II d'Orléans governed the kingdom following the death of Louis XIV. A curious and libertine spirit, he was also a musician, painter, and patron of the arts, embodying the transition between the Grand Siècle and the Enlightenment.

Heroine of Colombian independence (c. 1795–1817), nicknamed "La Pola". A seamstress and patriot spy, she recruited soldiers for the independence cause. Captured by the Spanish, she was executed by firing squad in Bogotá on November 14, 1817.

Born in Caracas in 1783, Simón Bolívar was the leading architect of South American independence from the Spanish Empire. Known as 'El Libertador,' he liberated several nations and dreamed of a great Latin American federation.

Born around 1772 in Guadeloupe to an enslaved African mother, Solitude joined the mixed-race insurgents during the armed resistance against the restoration of slavery decreed by Bonaparte in 1802. Pregnant, she fought until her capture and was hanged the day after giving birth, on November 29, 1802. Her story, passed down through Creole and Caribbean oral tradition, has made her an emblematic figure of resistance against colonial oppression.

Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1702 to 1707, then first Queen of Great Britain following the Acts of Union of 1707. Her reign saw the rise of parliamentary government and the War of the Spanish Succession.

Cardinal and chief minister of state of France, he governed the kingdom during Louis XIV's minority under the regency of Anne of Austria. Richelieu's successor, he signed the Treaties of Westphalia and overcame the Fronde to consolidate the monarchy.

Esther Johnson (1681–1728), known by the nickname "Stella", was the close friend and confidante of the writer Jonathan Swift. Their intellectual and epistolary relationship, chronicled in the Journal to Stella, makes her a notable figure in English literary life of the 18th century.

Anglo-Irish writer and satirist (1667–1745), Jonathan Swift is the author of Gulliver's Travels. Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin, he used literature as a political and social weapon against the injustices of his time.

Poisoner, fortune-teller, and abortionist in 17th-century Paris, Catherine Deshayes was the central figure of the Affair of the Poisons (1679–1682). Supplying poisons, love potions, and black masses to an aristocratic clientele, she was burned alive at the Place de Grève in 1680.

Nicknamed “the Great Condé,” this prince of the blood distinguished himself at the Battle of Rocroi (1643) by crushing the Spanish infantry. A key figure in the Fronde, he eventually reconciled with Louis XIV and remained one of the greatest military commanders of the Grand Siècle.

A Carmelite nun at the convent of Louviers, Madeleine Bavent was at the center of a demonic possession affair and witchcraft accusations in 1647. Her trial, emblematic of the excesses of the witch hunts, led to the execution of Father Thomas Boulle and the condemnation of several members of the religious community.

French noblewoman from the House of Dreux, a family of high Capetian lineage. A figure of the French aristocracy in the early modern period, her name combines Catholic devotion with membership in one of France's great seigneurial dynasties.

A French aristocrat of the 17th century, notorious for poisoning her father and brothers in order to inherit their fortune. Her trial and execution in 1676 triggered the Affair of the Poisons, exposing the widespread use of poison in high society.

Official favorite of Louis XIV from 1667 to 1681, she reigned over the court of Versailles and had seven legitimized children with the Sun King. Implicated in the Affair of the Poisons, she subsequently fell from grace.

A Pomeranian noblewoman born around 1590, Sidonie von Borcke was accused of witchcraft and sentenced to death. Beheaded in 1620 in Stettin, her trial illustrates the violence of persecutions against women in the early modern period.

An enslaved woman of Native American or Caribbean origin (probably Arawak), owned by Reverend Samuel Parris in Salem. In 1692, she was the first accused to confess to witchcraft, triggering the spiral of the Salem witch trials.

An 18th-century Venetian composer and violinist, Vivaldi is one of the major figures of Baroque music. He is best known for his violin concertos, particularly The Four Seasons, which remain among the most performed works in the classical repertoire.

King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718, Charles XII was one of the greatest military commanders of his era. He led the Great Northern War against a European coalition, winning the Battle of Narva (1700) before suffering a crushing defeat at Poltava (1709). He died during the siege of Fredriksten, marking the end of Swedish dominance in Europe.

Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt and member of the House of Hohenzollern, he is best known as the dedicatee of Johann Sebastian Bach's six Brandenburg Concertos (1721). A music lover and patron of the arts, he embodies the aristocratic German culture of the early 18th century.

King of Denmark and Norway from 1559 to 1588, Frederick II waged the Northern Seven Years' War against Sweden and was an enlightened patron of the arts, most notably supporting the astronomer Tycho Brahe. He commissioned the construction of Kronborg Castle in Elsinore.

Born Belle van Zuylen in the Netherlands in 1740, Isabelle de Charrière settled in Switzerland after her marriage and became one of the most remarkable women writers of the 18th century. A novelist, letter-writer, and composer, she advocated with great clarity for women's freedom and critiqued the social conventions of her time.

A mathematician and philosopher of the Enlightenment, he co-edited the great Encyclopédie with Diderot and wrote its famous Preliminary Discourse. He formulated the mechanical principle that bears his name and embodied the encyclopédiste ideal of bringing together all human knowledge.

German composer and organist (1685–1750), Johann Sebastian Bach is one of the greatest figures of Baroque music. A master of fugue and polyphony, he composed over a thousand works combining mathematical rigor with spiritual depth, decisively influencing the history of Western music.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) was an Austrian composer regarded as the "father of the symphony" and the string quartet. Long in the service of the Esterházy family, he profoundly influenced Mozart and Beethoven. His monumental body of work includes more than 100 symphonies and represents the pinnacle of Viennese Classicism.

German composer (1770–1827) who marked the transition between musical classicism and romanticism. Despite his progressive deafness, he created major works that revolutionized Western music, including the famous 9th Symphony.

Regent of France from 1715 to 1723 during the minority of Louis XV, Philippe II d'Orléans governed the kingdom following the death of Louis XIV. A curious and libertine spirit, he was also a musician, painter, and patron of the arts, embodying the transition between the Grand Siècle and the Enlightenment.

An Austrian composer of the 18th century, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) is considered one of the greatest composers in the history of music. A child prodigy, he composed more than 600 works spanning every musical genre and stands as the ultimate embodiment of the Classical style.

Italian painter

King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718, Charles XII was one of the greatest military commanders of his era. He led the Great Northern War against a European coalition, winning the Battle of Narva (1700) before suffering a crushing defeat at Poltava (1709). He died during the siege of Fredriksten, marking the end of Swedish dominance in Europe.

Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun (1755-1842) est l'une des plus grandes portraitistes du XVIIIe siècle. Peintre officielle de Marie-Antoinette, elle réalise plus de 660 portraits avant de fuir la Révolution française. Première femme admise à l'Académie royale de peinture, elle incarne l'excellence féminine dans un monde artistique dominé par les hommes.

Spanish painter and printmaker (1746–1828), considered a forerunner of modern art. He served as official painter to the Spanish royal court while developing a dark and visionary personal body of work, particularly after losing his hearing in 1792.

Gabrielle Charpentier (c. 1764–1793) was the wife of Georges-Jacques Danton, a leading orator of the French Revolution. The daughter of a Parisian café owner, she died at 28 in February 1793 while her husband was on a mission in Belgium, just months before the Reign of Terror.

Pope from 1691 to 1700, Innocent XII reformed the Church by combating nepotism through the bull Romanum decet Pontificem (1692). He played a role in the Quietist controversy and contributed to European diplomacy.

A German naturalist and artist of the 17th century, Maria Sibylla Merian was a pioneer in the study of insects and their metamorphosis. She led an expedition to Suriname (1699–1701) to observe and illustrate tropical flora and fauna, at a time when women rarely had access to the sciences.

Mughal empress (1577–1645), wife of Emperor Jahangir, she was the only woman to wield real political power under the Mughal dynasty. An administrator, poet, and patron of the arts, she had coins struck in her own name and effectively governed the empire for several years.

Rembrandt van Rijn was a Dutch painter and etcher of the 17th century, considered one of the greatest masters of Western painting. A virtuoso of chiaroscuro, he excelled in portraits, biblical scenes, and self-portraits. His work, marked by profound humanity, has had a lasting influence on the history of art.

An American statesman, Thomas Jefferson was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). A philosopher of the Enlightenment, he also served as the third President of the United States (1801–1809).

British poet, painter, and engraver (1757-1827), William Blake is one of the towering figures of English Romanticism. A visionary and mystic, he created a strikingly original body of poetic and artistic work, combining text and image in hand-engraved illuminated books.

Legendary queen of the Baoulé people in the 18th century, she led her people from the Ashanti kingdom to present-day Ivory Coast. Oral tradition holds that she sacrificed her only son to allow her people to cross the Comoé River, a founding act of Baoulé identity.

Founding queen of the Baoulé people (Côte d'Ivoire) in the 18th century, according to Akan oral tradition. To allow her people to cross the Comoé River during a forced exile, she is said to have sacrificed her only son. Her name means "the child who does not return."

Baron Samedi is the loa of death in Haitian Vodou. Depicted in undertaker's attire — top hat and dark glasses — he is the guardian of the passage between the living and the dead. An ambivalent figure, at once protector and obscene trickster, he embodies the boundary between life and death.

Spanish conquistador (c. 1478–1541), he led the conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru between 1532 and 1533, captured the emperor Atahualpa, and founded Lima in 1535. His expedition transformed the New World and opened South America to Spanish colonization.

German philosopher and mathematician of the 17th century, Leibniz invented calculus independently of Newton and developed binary logic. A universal thinker, he built an original metaphysics grounded in the theory of monads.

A demonic half-man, half-goat creature from Germanic Alpine folklore, Krampus is the punishing companion of Saint Nicholas. While Saint Nicholas rewards well-behaved children, Krampus punishes the naughty ones by whipping them with birch branches or carrying them away in his basket.

La Llorona is a ghost from Latin American folklore, the figure of a woman who, according to legend, drowned her own children and has since wandered weeping along rivers and lakes. This legend, deeply rooted in Mexico and Latin America, blends pre-Hispanic and Spanish colonial influences.

Nicknamed “the Great Condé,” this prince of the blood distinguished himself at the Battle of Rocroi (1643) by crushing the Spanish infantry. A key figure in the Fronde, he eventually reconciled with Louis XIV and remained one of the greatest military commanders of the Grand Siècle.

Papa Legba is the loa guardian of crossroads in Haitian Vodou religion. Depicted as an old man with a cane, he is the essential intermediary between humans and the other spirits. No ceremony can begin without first invoking his permission.

Gabrielle Charpentier (c. 1764–1793) was the wife of Georges-Jacques Danton, a leading orator of the French Revolution. The daughter of a Parisian café owner, she died at 28 in February 1793 while her husband was on a mission in Belgium, just months before the Reign of Terror.

A mathematician and philosopher of the Enlightenment, he co-edited the great Encyclopédie with Diderot and wrote its famous Preliminary Discourse. He formulated the mechanical principle that bears his name and embodied the encyclopédiste ideal of bringing together all human knowledge.

An 18th-century French salonnière, Julie de Lespinasse ran one of the most influential salons in Paris, frequented by the Encyclopédistes. A passionate letter-writer, her correspondence offers a vivid window into the intellectual life of the Enlightenment.

A demonic half-man, half-goat creature from Germanic Alpine folklore, Krampus is the punishing companion of Saint Nicholas. While Saint Nicholas rewards well-behaved children, Krampus punishes the naughty ones by whipping them with birch branches or carrying them away in his basket.

La Llorona is a ghost from Latin American folklore, the figure of a woman who, according to legend, drowned her own children and has since wandered weeping along rivers and lakes. This legend, deeply rooted in Mexico and Latin America, blends pre-Hispanic and Spanish colonial influences.

British navigator, cartographer and explorer (1728–1779), James Cook led three major expeditions into the Pacific Ocean and greatly advanced the world's geographical knowledge. He explored and mapped New Zealand, Australia, and numerous Pacific archipelagos, becoming one of the defining figures of modern exploration.

A French naval officer and explorer of the 18th century, La Pérouse led a major expedition across the Pacific Ocean (1785–1788). The voyage produced important cartographic surveys and scientific studies, but the expedition mysteriously disappeared in 1788.

explorer and botanist (1740-1807)

A Shoshone woman (c. 1788–1812), Sacagawea served as the indispensable interpreter and guide for the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806). Her knowledge of the land, languages, and Indigenous peoples enabled the American expedition to cross the continent all the way to the Pacific.

An 18th-century Scottish philosopher and economist, Adam Smith is considered the father of modern political economy. His landmark work, The Wealth of Nations (1776), laid the foundations of economic liberalism and capitalism.

Ching Shih (c. 1775–1844) was a Chinese pirate who became one of the most formidable military commanders in history. She led the Red Flag Fleet, a confederation of over 1,800 ships and 80,000 men, imposing her rule across the South China Sea.

Scottish engineer and inventor (1736–1819), James Watt greatly improved Newcomen's steam engine in 1769, making it efficient and economical. His invention revolutionized industry and transportation, earning him a place as one of the fathers of the Industrial Revolution.

Aphra Behn (1640-1689) was the first English woman to earn her living by the pen. A prolific playwright, novelist, and spy in the service of Charles II, she defied the conventions of her time by making her mark in the male-dominated literary world.

Gabrielle Charpentier (c. 1764–1793) was the wife of Georges-Jacques Danton, a leading orator of the French Revolution. The daughter of a Parisian café owner, she died at 28 in February 1793 while her husband was on a mission in Belgium, just months before the Reign of Terror.

Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American War of Independence, George Washington became the first President of the United States (1789–1797). A Virginia planter and slaveholder, he embodies the contradictions of the young Republic — torn between ideals of liberty and the reality of slavery.

Scottish engineer and inventor (1736–1819), James Watt greatly improved Newcomen's steam engine in 1769, making it efficient and economical. His invention revolutionized industry and transportation, earning him a place as one of the fathers of the Industrial Revolution.